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Media portrayals of the Ukrainian crisis, including 2014 unrest and the 2014 Ukrainian revolution following the Euromaidan movement, differed widely between Ukrainian, western and Russian media.〔 In particular, the Russian media was accused of propagandizing, and of waging an information war during its coverage of the events.〔〔 Russian channels were repeatedly criticized for the use of misleading images, false narratives, misrepresentation, suppression,〔 and fabricated news stories, such as a child's crucifixion and the death of a 10-year-old in shelling.〔〔 The BBC reported that Russian state television "appears to employ techniques of psychological conditioning designed to excite extreme emotions of aggression and hatred in the viewer",〔 which, according to The Guardian, is part of a coordinated "informational-psychological war operation".〔 ==Media in Russia== The Russian media consistently portrayed the crisis in Ukraine as having been instigated by the interim Ukrainian government,〔〔〔 and represented Euromaidan as being controlled by "ultranationalist", "fascist",〔〔 "neo-Nazi", and "anti-Semitic" groups〔 such as Right Sector. The revolution was depicted as a "violent coup" fomented by the West in order to overthrow an elected government.〔〔〔 Police brutality against Euromaidan supporters was omitted.〔 Simultaneously, the movement was portrayed as having LGBT agendas.〔〔〔 Portrayals by the Russia state media were generally close to those by the Russian government; they presented western countries, particularly the United States, as orchestrating events in Ukraine in order to harm Russia.〔〔 Accusations of Russophobia were common in response to criticism of Russian actions.〔 The Ukraine-European Union Association Agreement was depicted as a weapon against the Kremlin, protesters as paid stooges of the United States, and the Vilnius summit as akin to the Munich Agreement.〔 Reporting on a Euromaidan protest attended by over a hundred thousand people, Channel One Russia said the protests were "dying out" with "only a few hundred" attending.〔 The head of ''Rossiya Segodnya'', Dmitry Kiselyov, said, "Information war is now the main type of war, preparing the way for military action"〔 and the Russian Minister of Defence, Sergei Shoigu, described the media as an arm of the Russian military.〔 Russian state media frequently reported stories that were completely made up or used distorted statements by Ukrainian and Western politicians. In 2015 European Union External Action started a periodic publication called "Disinformation Review" documenting such articles by Russian media accompanied by debunking information. News published in even mainstream media and presented as actual events are frequently based on hearsay, anonymous blogs or intentionally staged shows, selectively quoted materials, usually skipping any opinnions critical to Russia. Social media are also used in a coordinated way in an attempt to influence public opinion in Russia and other countries.〔〔〔〔 Following the parliamentary vote in which Arseniy Yatsenyuk was chosen as transitional Prime Minister, ''RT'' described Ukrainian government officials as "coup-appointed".〔 Continuing after the election of Petro Poroshenko as President, Russian news outlets regularly described the Ukrainian government as a "junta, "fascist", and "illegitimate".〔〔〔 Kiselyov's two-hour Sunday show ''Vesti Nedeli'' "developed a near single-minded fixation on Ukraine" and presented the post-Maidan authorities as "fascist usurpers" who were "propped up" by NATO.〔 Ukraine was often portrayed as "irreparably dysfunctional", "artificial", "deeply divided", or as a failed state.〔〔〔 Russian state media claimed that Kiev authorities had allowed total anarchy to take root in Ukraine and that the country was under the control of "banderovtsy", followers of Ukrainian nationalist Stepan Bandera.〔〔〔〔 According to Boris Nemtsov's report, ''Putin. War'', the rhetoric of World War II was projected onto the crisis, with Russia presented as fighting against "fascism".〔 Eastern Ukrainians were portrayed as desiring Russia's intervention and protection, despite a Gallup poll showing that less than 20% of residents held such views.〔 The Ukrainian government was accused by Russian media of "genocide"〔〔 and "pogroms" against the large Russian-speaking population in eastern and southern Ukraine.〔〔 These "pogroms" were said to have been directed toward churches and synagogues, though local Jewish communities denied that any pogroms took place.〔〔 Russia-1 and RIA Novosti claimed that these "pogroms" and "anarchy" resulted in a "humanitarian crisis" in Ukraine, and predicted that refugees would "flood in".〔 In early March 2014, prior to the war in Donbass, Russian channels said large numbers of refugees were fleeing the "chaos" in Ukraine and portrayed the new Kyiv authorities as "fascists," and an ''RT'' anchor declared that Russian military intervention was "aimed only at saving Russian lives."〔 ''Channel One'' presented footage from Shehyni, at a border crossing between Ukraine and Poland, as Ukrainians escaping to Russia.〔〔〔 Russian state channels depicted Donbass civilians as under attack by Ukrainian forces and made no mention of insurgents firing from residential areas.〔 They described the Ukrainian army's operations as "punitive"〔 and presented the war in Donbass as a "civil war".〔 On Russian citizens fighting against Ukraine, they "repeated the official line that the troops are "volunteers" or travelled to Ukraine on leave rather than in any official capacity" while describing foreigners fighting for Ukraine as "mercenaries".〔 There were frequent mentions of "Slavonic unity" and "Russian brotherhood".〔 A group of Russian nationalists prepared an international exhibition Material Evidence, presented with highly anti-Western and pro-Russian bias. Writing for ''The Guardian'', British historian Timothy Garton Ash said that Putin "used television to impose his own narrative of a socially conservative, proud Russia threatened by fascists in Kiev, an expansionist Nato and a decadent EU."〔 Joshua Yaffa of ''The New Republic'' reported a "propaganda onslaught unprecedented in the post-Soviet era, implying or inventing dark suspicions about Western motives in Ukraine while painting Russia's own meddling as a heroic answer to the call of justice."〔 In an interview with the Institute for War and Peace Reporting, Peter Pomerantsev said, "The Kremlin has reinvented the conflict in Ukraine as a genocide against Russians. People believe that the fascists are coming to get them, because that’s what they have seen on TV, or that the CIA is behind massacres in Ukraine."〔 Ingo Mannteufel of ''Deutsche Welle'' reported that "Kremlin-run media outlets have been hammering the Russian people and foreign audiences with messages that "fascist politicians and US intelligence agencies" have taken over neighboring Ukraine".〔 The Russian media has employed "Soviet language", referring to "traitors", "fascists", and "fifth columns".〔 In an open letter to Vladimir Putin, Ukrainian Jews, a mostly Russian-speaking community, said the Russian media had fabricated stories of forced Ukrainization, bans on the Russian language, and growth of anti-Semitism, and suggested that Putin had "confused Ukraine with Russia, where Jewish organizations have noticed growth in anti-Semitic tendencies last year."〔 The Russian media focused particularly on Right Sector, portraying the group as powerful, fascist, and neo-Nazi and saying that it was persecuting Russian-speakers and Jews.〔〔〔 Writing for ''Foreign Policy'', Hanna Kozlowska stated that Russian propaganda tried to demonize the Ukraine government and build a case for the annexation of Crimea by depicting Right Sector as a powerful neo-Nazi group which might take control of Ukraine.〔 During the first half of 2014, Right Sector was the second-most mentioned political group in online Russian mass media.〔 The Associated Press and other international news organizations found no evidence that the group had committed hate crimes.〔 Right Sector and other far-right candidates had poor results in both the 2014 Ukrainian presidential election and parliamentary elections.〔〔 Josef Zissels, chairman of the Vaad Association of Jewish Organization and Communities of Ukraine, stated: "The failure of the ultranationalists reflects a reality which we have been trying to represent all the time despite Russian propaganda’s attempt to portray Ukrainian society as intolerant."〔 After the parliamentary election, Vyacheslav Likhachev of the Euro-Asian Jewish Congress said that "Russian propaganda speaks of a ‘Ukrainian Fascist junta,’ but in reality there are more voters for the far-right in the European Union than in Ukraine."〔 Jillian Kay Melchior of the ''National Review'' found the claims of discrimination against Russian-speakers "absurd," saying the Russian language was prevalent even in Kiev.〔 During the Crimean crisis, Russian media supported the Russian government's assertions that Russian troops were not involved.〔 Russian channels declared that Ukrainian nationalists from western Ukraine and Kiev were assaulting and killing Russians in Crimea; they claimed that a bus in Simferopol was carrying members of Right Sector who were attacking Crimean residents, although the footage showed a bus with Crimean license plates transporting men armed with Russian weapons, after roads to Crimea had been blocked by Russian soldiers.〔〔 ''Russia 24'' used footage of Maidan square in Kiev to support its claims of chaos in Simferopol, Crimea.〔 Claims of violence and suppression against Russian-speakers in Ukraine were used as justification for the Russian military intervention in Crimea.〔 Russian media claimed that the western media ignored the apparent "violence", and that demonstrators in Crimea were protesting for democratic rights. In reference to this, Russian sources consistently refer to the events as the "Russian Spring", harking back to pro-democracy movements like the Prague Spring and Arab Spring.〔 The annexation of Crimea was portrayed as the will of the people and a "reunification".〔 Pro-Russian protesters in eastern Ukraine, including those who were armed and had taken journalists hostage, were portrayed as peaceful "pro-federalization" activists.〔 At the same time some Russian media were promoting anti-western and pro-war views: Channel ''Rossiya 2'' aired a short simulation of a Topol-M rocket hitting London while channel ''5'' simulated a conventional invasion on Warsaw, Berlin and Baltic states. Anti-government groups in eastern and southern Ukraine have been consistently characterized as "local people bravely fighting for their rights", as "self-defence forces", and as "supporters of federalization".〔〔〔〔 According to broadcasts by the Russia-1 state television channel, "Kiev threatened the citizens of Donetsk with psychological attacks from the air. Periodically, military helicopters and planes circle menacingly over the towns of Sloviansk and Kramatorsk".〔 In addition, the Ukrainian army, which has launched various offensives against militants in Donetsk Oblast, has been continually portrayed as having "low morale", and being "disorganized".〔 NTV, a television channel owned by Russian state oil company Gazprom, reported that "Ukrainian troops refused to take orders from their commanders, and sided with pro-Russian militiamen".〔 In July 2014, ''ITAR-TASS, RIA Novosti'', and ''LifeNews'' reported that pro-Russian separatists had shot down a Ukrainian military plane over Torez.〔〔 When it emerged that the plane was MH17, Russian channels began promoting various theories, all of which suggested Ukraine was responsible.〔〔 They considered the crash to be part of a U.S. conspiracy against Russia.〔 Russian media claimed in late September that "hundreds of unmarked graves of civilians executed by Ukrainian army" were found and verified by OSCE monitors, a claim that was debunked by the OSCE and DPR officials.〔〔〔 Other top stories, usually based on hearsay, with no accompanying evidence and illustrated by photos taken from unrelated incidents〔 included a "three-year-old boy crucified by Ukrainian servicemen", "parcel of land and two Russian slaves for Ukrainian soldiers," a woman with five different names and stories, "Spanish air controller in Kiev", "satellite photo of Ukrainian fighter jet firing at Boeing", "Ukrainian fighter jet pilot confession" (spread in Russian media as a viable explanations for the MH17 crash), Dmytro Yarosh winning the 2014 Ukrainian presidential election, and Yarosh threatening to set off a grenade in Parliament.〔〔〔〔 Rossiya Segodnya's ''Ukraina.ru'' website claimed that Ukrainian president Petro Poroshenko had links with Lucifer.〔 In August 2015 Komsomoloskaya Pravda published an alleged wiretap of two named CIA operatives planning an attack on MH17 but, which was ridiculed in Western media as the English used by both "agents" was very unnatural for a native speaker and resembled "Google translated Russian phrases read from a script". (詳細はTASS published a false report that the Carpatho-Rusyns had held a congress during which they decided to seek autonomy.〔〔 Russian state media were also criticized for their reporting on Odessa Oblast, particularly claims of riots and persecution of ethnic minorities.〔 Russia-1 presented Poroshenko's statement that Ukrainian would remain the only state language as a violation of the right to speak Russian freely, although a survey found that even Donbas and eastern oblasts preferred Russian to have the status of second official language in particular regions over "state language" status.〔 In April 2015, Russian media widely reported a death of a 10-year-old girl killed by Ukrainian artillery but Russian reporters on the site interviewed by the BBC admitted that "the girl never existed" and they were reporting this fake story because they "were instructed" to do so.〔 Further fake news in Russian media included alleged "fascist attacks" on Greek population in Crimea (which Greek embassy denied) and "four American soldiers" raping two underage girls in Ukraine.〔(【引用サイトリンク】 title=Russia's top 160 lies about Ukraine )〕 In May 2015 Izvestiya allegedly "disclosed" a letter from US Embassy to LGBT activists in Russia written in English with so many errors, that the US Departament of State republished it marking the errors in red with a dedication in Russian, suggesting that the authors ask for help while writing such letters next time. The BBC reported that the Russian state media had a "tendency to focus on events in Ukraine to the almost complete exclusion of problems at home."〔 In May 2015, Slovak monitoring group ''MEMO 98, Internews Ukraine'', and ''Yerevan Press Club of Armenia'' completed a report on Russian TV channels for the Civil Society Forum of the Eastern Partnership. MEMO 98's Rasťo Kužel observed that Russian media "diverted attention from important domestic issues and scared the population with the possibility of a war and the need of Russia to protect itself against an external enemy."〔 In an interview for ''Deutsche Welle'', OSCE observer Paul Picard stated: "We often see how Russian media outlets manipulate our statements. They say that we have not seen Russian troops crossing the borders. But that only applies to two border crossings. We have no idea what is going on at the others" (Russia having refused to allow the OSCE to expand its mission).〔 Leaked emails of Kristina Potupchik, former Nashi spokeswoman, later employee of President Vladimir Putin's administration, revealed wide-scale monitoring of any critical articles in Russia opposition media, placing paid comments and trolling by web brigades coordinated by Potupchik〔 (according to earlier leaks she was involved in similar activities at least since 2012).〔 For example, Potupchik reported to her supervisors about alleged irregularities in Alexei Navalny's passport application form, attaching its scans to the email. As noted by ''The Insider'', she had no legal way to obtain these forms as they are considered sensitive documents, and a few days later LifeNews reported exactly these irregularities as part of campaign against Navalny.〔 According to Alexander Sytnik, a former member of the Russian Institute for Strategic Research, his organisation was one of the channels for "illegal funding of pro-Russian analysts in Ukraine through third parties".〔 On a number of occasions, Vladimir Putin, Dmitry Rogozin and Nikolai Patrushev have given examples of Western prejudice and hostility against Russia; one of these examples was an alleged statement by Madelaine Albright about Russia "controlling too much of Siberia's resources". As Russian independent media shortly found out, this phrase was never voiced by Albright, but instead by a former Russian security services officer Boris Ratnikov, who in 2006 gave examples of what kind of "secret" information he was able to extract from Western leaders using experimental "remote mind control" research. Even though this information was known from as 2007, Russian leaders repeatedly used it as if it were a real statement. Asked by a journalist about this particular statement, Putin replied that "I know this is what they think in their minds". According to a linguistic analysis by Vasily Gatov, top Russian politicians started reusing classical language habits of Bolshevik leaders, such as self-questioning ("a question arises..."), metonymy ("some countries...") and expressions or anecdotes from criminal subculture. In September 2015 Alexandr Bastrykin, head of Investigative Committee of Russia, gave an interview in which he presented a version of events around arrest of Nadia Savchenko that included her "voluntarily crossing Russian border" and "living for 4 days in hotels" on the territory of Russia before she was arrested, and completely contradicted previous reports by Donetsk People's Republic militia of her being taken prisoner of war, including videos of her interrogation. In the same interview Bastrykin also accused Arseniy Yatsenyuk of taking part in First Chechen War which, due to its surreal character was widely ridiculed in Ukrainian and Russian media, including a number of memes portraying Yatseniuk as a Chechen warlord. These accusations were based on testimonies from Mykola Karpyuk and Stanislav Klykh, Ukrainian citizens held in Russia since 2014, and forced using torture and extortion. Another Ukrainian citizen, Serhiy Litvinov, is also held in Russia and his forced testimonies were used by Russian media as a 'proof' of 'genocide of Russian nationals' as Litvinov was also charged of murder of 20 'unidentified people' and a rape. By the end of 2014 most the charges against him were dropped, leaving one robbery charge. According to Alexander Cherkasov the prosecution statement in Karpyuk and Klykh contains errors and inconsistencies suggesting that it was written based on Russian Wikipedia article on Salman Raduyev instead of any actual evidence. Themes of Russia's "information war" include Russia having the right to a "sphere of influence" and "only laying claim to what is rightfully hers", its neighbors being "failed states" and Europe "harming" its economy and security by building ties, "moral equality" between Putin and the West, "Western decadence" and threats to "traditional" ways of life, Europe being most harmed by sanctions, Putin's government being "legitimate" and "successful", and obscuring Russia's role in post-Soviet crises by presenting them as ethnic conflicts.〔 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Media portrayal of the Ukrainian crisis」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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